JAS – Aware Solutions
Independent legal research and analysis on law, regulation, technology and society. Critical thinking, complex questions and practical implications.
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Green Deal LinkedIn Article
The Green Deal: Follow the Money
Who profits from the energy transition — and who ultimately pays the price?
For decades, European consumers have been encouraged to choose green energy. Wind and solar were presented not merely as alternative sources of electricity, but increasingly as the responsible choice: better for the climate, better for the environment and therefore better for our collective future.
Today, that voluntary choice has evolved into something much larger. Renewable energy has become a central element of international climate policy, European legislation and national energy strategies. Wind turbines and solar parks are no longer simply competing technologies in an ordinary energy market. Governments have deliberately created targets, incentives, subsidy programmes and regulatory frameworks to accelerate their deployment.
That deserves scrutiny. Not because renewable energy should automatically be opposed, but because an energy transition of this magnitude creates an enormous economic system.
And whenever an enormous economic system is created, one question should always be asked:
Follow the money.
From Australia to a Global Energy Transition
My interest was triggered by an interview with a former Australian political adviser who says she worked for seven years for a Liberal Party senator, with renewable energy among the issues she dealt with.
Her assessment of the wind-energy system she encountered is uncompromising. She calls it a “scam”.
It is a provocative word. But rather than dismissing it, I became interested in the financial and legal structure behind her allegations.
Australia introduced the Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000, establishing the legislative basis for its renewable-energy certificate system. A Renewable Energy (Electricity) Amendment Bill followed in 2002, although that particular Bill did not proceed. The original legislation has subsequently been amended repeatedly.
Under the Australian system, accredited renewable power stations can create Large-scale Generation Certificates for eligible renewable electricity. These certificates can be sold and traded, while certain electricity retailers and other liable entities are legally required to acquire and surrender certificates.
The Australian Clean Energy Regulator itself describes these certificates as providing a financial incentive for renewable-energy generation.
In other words, legislation did not merely regulate an existing market. Public policy helped create the economic conditions in which renewable-energy investment could expand.
Australia, however, is only one part of a much larger development.
At COP28 in Dubai in 2023, governments agreed to pursue the global objective of tripling renewable-energy capacity by 2030. The International Energy Agency has translated that ambition into at least 11,000 GW of renewable generation capacity worldwide.
That represents an extraordinary amount of infrastructure and investment. Wind turbines have to be manufactured and installed. Solar parks must be constructed. Land and offshore areas are required. Electricity grids need to be expanded. New cables, substations and connections have to be financed.
The energy transition is therefore not merely an environmental project.
It is one of the largest investment programmes in the world.
The European Green Deal
Europe has translated the global transition into its own legal and political framework. Under EU legislation, renewable energy should account for at least 42.5% of European energy consumption by 2030, with an ambition to reach 45%.
Wind energy plays a major role in achieving that objective. The European Commission has stated that EU wind capacity needs to increase from approximately 204 GW in 2022 to more than 500 GW by 2030.
More than doubling capacity in eight years requires much more than consumers voluntarily deciding that they prefer green electricity. It requires political targets, regulation, investment, public infrastructure and financial mechanisms intended to make projects viable.
And this is where I believe the Green Deal deserves another kind of scrutiny.
Not only: how much CO₂ can we reduce?
But also:
Who earns money from achieving these targets, where does that money come from — and who ultimately pays the price?
Follow the Subsidies
The Netherlands provides a useful example.
Through the SDE++ scheme, the Dutch government financially supports renewable-energy production and other technologies intended to reduce CO₂ emissions. For the 2026 SDE++ round alone, €8 billion has been made available.
The principle behind the scheme is straightforward. Where the cost of producing sustainable energy or reducing emissions exceeds the market value of the product, SDE++ can compensate the so-called unprofitable component, subject to the applicable conditions and limits.
That is a deliberate political instrument designed to make investments possible or attractive where market revenues alone may be insufficient.
There is nothing secret about that, and a subsidy is not inherently objectionable.
But once public money is being used to support private investment, we should be entitled to ask some very ordinary questions.
Who receives the subsidies? Who owns the resulting assets? Who receives the investment returns?
Because subsidy money does not fall from the sky.
It is public money.
And public money ultimately comes from us.
Follow the Energy Bill
There is another flow of money: the energy bill.
For decades, consumers have been encouraged to purchase green electricity from their energy suppliers. What began as an individual and supposedly environmentally responsible choice has gradually become part of an energy system in which wind and solar are being deployed on an unprecedented scale.
Consumers pay their energy suppliers for electricity. They pay network charges. Through taxation, citizens and businesses finance public expenditure.
These are legally and economically different money flows and should not be confused.
But neither should they be examined in isolation if we genuinely want to understand who finances the energy transition.
The Dutch Authority for Consumers and Markets has warned that enormous investment in the electricity grid will be required in the coming decades. Annual electricity-grid costs across all users are expected to rise substantially as the grid is expanded and reinforced.
Those investments may be necessary for the energy system governments have chosen to build.
But necessary does not mean free.
Consumers and businesses ultimately pay for the electricity system.
This leads to an important distinction that is too often lost when we are told how cheap renewable energy has become:
The production cost of electricity at a wind turbine is not the same thing as the total cost of an electricity system built around wind and solar.
If we genuinely want to know what renewable energy costs society, the calculation cannot stop at the price of a megawatt-hour.
We need to see the subsidies, infrastructure, grid reinforcement, balancing and flexibility, financing, long-term liabilities and eventual decommissioning.
Only then are we looking at the complete bill.
When the Turbine Has Reached the End of Its Life
This brings me back to Australia.
One of the most striking aspects of the whistleblower's account concerns landowners who agree to host wind turbines. A farmer may enter a long-term agreement believing he has secured an attractive additional income from his land.
But a wind turbine does not remain commercially useful forever.
The Australian Energy Infrastructure Commissioner has specifically warned landowners about decommissioning liabilities. Its published guidance has estimated the cost of removing a contemporary wind turbine at approximately A$400,000, potentially rising to A$600,000 or more for larger turbines.
The same authority has estimated that total hosting income received by a landowner over 25 years may amount to approximately A$250,000 to A$750,000 per turbine.
That creates an extraordinary possibility: removing the turbine may ultimately cost as much as — or even more than — the landowner received for hosting it during its entire operational life.
Normally, the project owner should carry that responsibility.
But twenty-five years is a long time.
The farmer who signed the original agreement may have died. His children may have inherited the land. The wind project may have changed hands several times. Companies may have been restructured, acquired or become insolvent. The technology itself may be obsolete.
The turbine, however, is still standing on somebody's land.
Who pays the bill?
That is not an ideological question about whether wind energy is good or bad. It is a question about contractual responsibility, financial security and the allocation of long-term risk.
And it is precisely the kind of question that should be answered before an investment is described as sustainable.
Who Profits — and Who Pays?
This is ultimately what interests me about the Green Deal.
An enormous international market has been created around the energy transition. Wind-farm developers, manufacturers, energy companies, infrastructure companies, banks, investment funds and other investors can participate in that market and generate substantial revenues and returns.
There is nothing inherently wrong with making a profit.
But when governments establish mandatory targets, provide subsidies and other financial support, facilitate investment and require unprecedented expenditure on electricity infrastructure, the public should be able to see how the resulting benefits and costs are distributed.
Which companies receive public support?
Who owns the assets after they have been subsidised?
Who receives the profits throughout their operating life?
Who pays for the infrastructure required to connect them?
Who carries the long-term financial risk?
Who pays for decommissioning?
And, ultimately, who finances the system?
In significant part, the answer is:
We do.
As taxpayers, as energy consumers, as businesses and as users of an electricity network whose enormous investment requirements eventually have to be paid for.
That does not prove that every renewable-energy project is a bad investment. Nor does it mean that every energy company is improperly profiting from the transition.
But it does mean that the word “green” should never end the discussion.
It should begin one.
The Complete Bill
Perhaps after decades of being encouraged to “choose green”, it is time to ask for the complete financial picture behind that choice.
Not merely the number of turbines installed. Not merely the amount of renewable capacity achieved. And not merely the theoretical production cost per megawatt-hour.
Show us the subsidies and incentives.
Show us the ownership structures and private returns.
Show us the infrastructure and grid costs.
Show us the long-term liabilities.
Show us who receives the money.
And show us who ultimately pays the price.
Only then can we properly judge whether the economic architecture of the Green Deal is itself sustainable.
Renewable energy may be green.
Money has no colour.
Follow the money.
Joan Désirée Mulder, LL.M.
JAS – Aware Solutions
More legal research and analysis:
www.jasduurzaamadvies.nl
Wie betaalt de rekening van Windenergie?
Windenergie: volg het geld
Wie wordt er werkelijk beter van de groene energietransitie — en wie betaalt uiteindelijk de rekening?
Onlangs zag ik een interview met een vrouw die zegt zeven jaar als beleidsadviseur voor een Australische Liberal Party-senator te hebben gewerkt, waarbij renewable energy tot haar dossier behoorde.
Zij onderzocht het systeem achter windenergie en komt tot een buitengewoon harde conclusie:
zij noemt het een scam.
Dat woord trok mijn aandacht.
Niet omdat ik iedere uitspraak uit een interview zonder meer voor waar aanneem. Integendeel. Ik wilde weten wat er gebeurt wanneer je haar verhaal naast officiële bronnen legt.
En wat ik aantrof, geeft wat mij betreft alle reden om veel kritischer te kijken naar het financiële systeem achter de groene energietransitie.
Een markt gecreëerd door wetgeving
Australië kent onder de Renewable Energy Target een wettelijk systeem van verhandelbare renewable-energy certificates.
Grote wind- en zonneparken kunnen voor geproduceerde hernieuwbare elektriciteit Large-scale Generation Certificates (LGC's) creëren. Elektriciteitsbedrijven en andere zogenoemde liable entities zijn vervolgens wettelijk verplicht een bepaald aantal van die certificaten te verwerven en in te leveren.
De Australische Clean Energy Regulator noemt die certificaten zelf een “financial incentive” voor renewable-energy generation.
Dat is een belangrijk gegeven.
De overheid stimuleert niet slechts een bestaande markt. Door regelgeving wordt mede een markt gecreëerd: producenten creëren de certificaten, terwijl wettelijke verplichtingen de vraag ernaar creëren.
De Regulator wijst bovendien op een voorspelbare inkomstenstroom uit zowel de verkoop van elektriciteit als LGC's, waardoor investeringen aantrekkelijker worden.
Dus begon ik mij een simpele vraag te stellen:
Follow the money.
Wie profiteert?
Windturbines kosten miljoenen. Windparken kosten honderden miljoenen of miljarden. Daarachter bevinden zich ontwikkelaars, energiebedrijven, grondeigenaren, banken, investeringsfondsen, certificatenhandelaren en andere commerciële partijen.
Dat is op zichzelf geen probleem. Ondernemingen mogen winst maken.
Maar zodra overheden via wetgeving, subsidies, certificaten, garanties of andere steunmechanismen de economische voorwaarden van die markt mede bepalen, wordt een andere vraag relevant:
hoeveel van die winstgevendheid bestaat dankzij publieke ondersteuning?
En vervolgens:
wie betaalt die ondersteuning?
De overheid beschikt immers niet over een mysterieuze eigen geldbron.
Publiek geld is uiteindelijk geld van burgers en ondernemingen.
De consument betaalt
Dat aspect vind ik misschien nog belangrijker.
Al decennialang worden consumenten aangemoedigd om voor groene energie te kiezen.
Groene stroom werd niet alleen als product verkocht, maar als morele keuze.
Kies voor wind.
Kies voor zon.
Kies voor het klimaat.
Kies voor een betere toekomst.
Miljoenen consumenten hebben dat gedaan in de overtuiging dat zij daarmee een milieuvriendelijker energiesysteem ondersteunen.
Maar ondertussen ontstond rondom diezelfde energietransitie een veel groter financieel systeem.
De consument betaalt zijn elektriciteitsrekening.
De belastingbetaler financiert publieke uitgaven en subsidies.
En via netwerktarieven worden de kosten van het elektriciteitsnet mede bij gebruikers neergelegd.
Dat zijn verschillende geldstromen — en juist daarom moeten we ze niet op één hoop gooien.
We moeten ze allemaal zichtbaar maken.
Want uiteindelijk komt het geld steeds ergens vandaan.
Europa en Nederland
Australië staat daarin niet alleen.
Ook Europa heeft met wetgeving en steunregelingen een enorme markt voor hernieuwbare energie gecreëerd.
En Nederland doet volop mee.
Via de SDE++ ondersteunt de Nederlandse overheid onder andere duurzame energieproductie.
Het mechanisme is veelzeggend: de regeling vergoedt, binnen haar voorwaarden, het verschil tussen de kostprijs van de technologie en de marktwaarde van de geproduceerde energie — de zogenaamde onrendabele top.
Bij hogere marktinkomsten daalt de bijdrage. Bij lagere opbrengsten kan de subsidie stijgen, tot de daarvoor geldende ondergrens.
Sta daar eens bij stil.
Wanneer een investering zonder ondersteuning onvoldoende rendabel is, helpt publiek beleid het verschil te overbruggen.
Vervolgens noemen we de geproduceerde energie goedkoop.
Maar wat bedoelen we dan precies met goedkoop?
Wat kost windenergie werkelijk?
De prijs van elektriciteit bij de turbine is niet hetzelfde als de totale prijs van het energiesysteem.
Een eerlijk kostenplaatje zou wat mij betreft veel breder moeten zijn.
Hoeveel subsidie en andere publieke ondersteuning is verstrekt?
Wat kosten de noodzakelijke netaansluitingen en netverzwaring?
Wat kosten congestie en balancering?
Wat kost opslag of andere flexibiliteit wanneer productie en vraag niet samenvallen?
Welke financiële risico's zijn bij private partijen gebleven en welke zijn direct of indirect collectief gemaakt?
En wat kost het uiteindelijk om duizenden windturbines en zonne-installaties na hun levensduur weer te verwijderen?
Pas wanneer die kosten zichtbaar zijn, kunnen we werkelijk vergelijken.
En dan moet die turbine ooit weer weg
Juist hier vond ik een van de opmerkelijkste bevestigingen van het Australische verhaal.
De Australian Energy Infrastructure Commissioner waarschuwt landeigenaren expliciet voor de financiële risico's van decommissioning.
De geschatte ontmantelingskosten van een moderne windturbine bedragen ongeveer A$400.000 per turbine en kunnen bij grotere turbines oplopen tot A$600.000 of meer.
Daartegenover kan een landeigenaar volgens dezelfde instantie gedurende 25 jaar ongeveer A$250.000 tot A$750.000 aan vergoedingen ontvangen voor het plaatsen van een turbine.
De conclusie van de Commissioner is opmerkelijk:
de kosten om een turbine uiteindelijk te verwijderen kunnen even hoog of hoger zijn dan alle inkomsten die de landeigenaar er gedurende 25 jaar mee heeft verdiend.
Normaal ligt die verantwoordelijkheid bij de projecteigenaar.
Maar 25 jaar is lang.
Projecten worden verkocht. Ondernemingen veranderen van eigenaar. Bedrijven kunnen verdwijnen of failliet gaan.
Daarom waarschuwt de Commissioner dat vooraf duidelijk moet zijn wie verantwoordelijk is, wie betaalt en hoe het benodigde geld daadwerkelijk wordt veiliggesteld.
Dat is voor mij geen voetnoot.
Het is onderdeel van de werkelijke economische rekening.
Van groene keuze naar systeem zonder echte keuze
Daar zit bovendien een vreemde ontwikkeling in.
Ooit werd groene energie verkocht als keuze.
De consument kon bewust voor groene stroom kiezen.
Maar wind- en zonne-energie zijn inmiddels geen alternatieve niche meer. Ze vormen steeds nadrukkelijker het door overheden gekozen energiesysteem.
We zien windturbines op land en op zee. Zonnepanelen op miljoenen daken. Complete zonneparken op landbouwgrond. En enorme investeringen in infrastructuur om dat energiesysteem mogelijk te maken.
De oorspronkelijke vraag:
“Wilt u groene energie?”
verandert daardoor langzaam in een heel andere:
“Wat gaat het energiesysteem waarvoor politiek is gekozen ons uiteindelijk kosten?”
Is het een scam?
Na het beluisteren van deze Australische klokkenluider en het controleren van belangrijke onderdelen van het systeem dat zij beschrijft, vind ik haar kwalificatie “scam” niet gemakkelijk meer weg te wuiven.
Daarmee zeg ik niet dat iedere windparkontwikkelaar fraudeert.
Ik zeg evenmin dat windturbines geen elektriciteit produceren.
Mijn kritiek richt zich op iets anders:
het economische systeem erachter.
Wanneer regelgeving een markt creëert of stimuleert, publieke middelen investeringen rendabeler maken, private partijen rendement behalen en substantiële systeemkosten uiteindelijk direct of indirect bij burgers en ondernemingen terechtkomen, wil ik weten hoe die volledige geldstroom eruitziet.
Niet alleen het gedeelte dat op de brochure staat.
En daarom kom ik steeds bij dezelfde vragen uit:
Wie ontvangt de subsidies?
Wie bezit de wind- en zonneparken?
Welke rendementen worden daar gemaakt?
Welke risico's worden door investeerders gedragen — en welke uiteindelijk door de samenleving?
Wie betaalt de noodzakelijke infrastructuur?
Wie betaalt de ontmanteling over twintig of dertig jaar?
En uiteindelijk:
Wie wordt hier werkelijk beter van?
Misschien moeten we na decennia praten over “groene energie” minder naar de kleur kijken en meer naar de geldstromen.
Want een technologie kan hernieuwbaar zijn.
Een businessmodel kan legaal zijn.
Een subsidie kan een politiek gewenst doel dienen.
Maar geen van die drie antwoorden vertelt ons automatisch of het gehele systeem economisch duurzaam, transparant en eerlijk verdeeld is.
Daarvoor moeten we de volledige rekening zien.
Follow the money.
—
Joan Désirée Mulder, LL.M.
JAS – Aware Solutions
Meer juridische analyses en onderzoek:
www.jasduurzaamadvies.nl
Meritocratie
Become Unf.ckablewith
We live inside systems. Legal systems. Financial systems. Employment structures. Digital platforms. Contracts, institutions, regulations and databases. You may not be able to step outside all of them. But you don't have to become small, dependent, predictable and controllable either.
So how do you create more autonomy while still living inside the system?
1. CONTRACTS
Don't assume that because someone puts a contract in front of you, every word is non-negotiable.
Read it. Question it. Ask for time. Propose changes. Cross out provisions you don't accept and negotiate before you sign.
A signature should represent agreement - not resignation.
2. ASK QUESTIONS
When an employer, institution, company or gatekeeper tells you that you “have to” do something,
ask: Why? On what basis? Is it legally required? Is there an alternative? What happens if I say no?
Don't confuse an instruction with an obligation. And don't confuse routine with law.
3. STUDY THE STRUCTURES
Learn how the structures around you actually work.
Contracts. Ownership. Associations. Trusts. Privacy. Taxation. Finance. Alternative organisational models.
You don't need to become an expert in everything.
But knowledge changes the balance of power.
It is much harder to control someone through rules they understand.
4. LEARN A SKILL
Learn something that makes you less dependent.
Repair something. Grow something. Build something. Learn bookkeeping. Cook. Negotiate. Write. Use technology. Understand basic law.
Every useful skill gives you one more thing you can do without depending on somebody else.
5. BUILD OTHER FORMS OF WEALTH
Money matters. But money is not the only capital you possess.
Knowledge.
Relationships.
Family.
Community.
Experience.
Culture.
Practical resources.
Health.
Skills.
Real resilience comes from having more than one source of strength — particularly forms of wealth that cannot disappear with one employer, one bank account or one policy change.
6. ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Use what you know.
Start something. Freelance. Sell a service. Build a side income. Create intellectual property. Turn experience into economic value.
Employment and entrepreneurship don't have to be opposites.
But having another way to provide for yourself gives you something enormously valuable:
the ability to choose.
7. F*CK WITH THEIR DATA
Why do we automatically tell online forms everything they ask us?
Our age. Gender. Date of birth. Location. Interests. Household. Behaviour. Preferences.
Every truthful little box helps create an increasingly detailed profile of who we are.
So question the form.
Does it actually need to know?
Leave optional fields blank. Refuse unnecessary permissions. Use privacy tools. Use aliases or non-identifying information where appropriate.
And yes - sometimes deliberately muddying commercially collected profiling data can be a form of resistance.
Not where accurate information is legally required. Not for identity verification, contracts or anything where false information could constitute fraud.
But corporations do not have an automatic moral entitlement to an accurate portrait of your private life simply because they have put a box on a screen.
Your data has value. Stop giving all of it away for free.
BECOME HARDER TO CONTROL.
This isn't about pretending society has no rules.
It's about refusing to move through those rules unconsciously.
Read.
Question.
Negotiate.
Learn.
Build.
Protect.
Create alternatives.
Freedom is not always about leaving the system.
Sometimes it is understanding the system well enough that you stop surrendering choices you never actually had to surrender.
A.I.
Who Controls the Machine?
AI, power and the uncomfortable question of who remains in control
In Person of Interest, billionaire programmer Harold Finch builds an artificial intelligence capable of watching almost everyone.
The Machine sees through cameras, follows communications, processes enormous amounts of data and predicts acts of violence before they happen.
But Finch is not primarily afraid that his Machine will become evil.
He is afraid of power.
So he restricts it.
He limits what it can communicate. He prevents it from freely identifying people. He builds safeguards. At one point, when another artificial intelligence project becomes too dangerous, the response is wonderfully primitive: sabotage the computer and pull the plug.
It is fiction.
But more than a decade later, Finch's question has become remarkably real:
Who controls the Machine?
And perhaps more importantly:
What happens when pulling the plug is no longer enough?
The Wrong Question
Much of the popular debate about artificial intelligence revolves around one dramatic question:
Could AI turn against humanity?
It makes excellent science fiction.
It may also distract us from a much more immediate problem.
Artificial intelligence does not need to hate us to become dangerous.
It does not need consciousness.
It does not need anger, ambition or a desire to survive.
It merely needs capability, access and authority.
Give a sufficiently capable system access to communications, financial infrastructure, databases, surveillance systems, software environments or critical infrastructure, and the relevant question changes.
It is no longer:
What can the model say?
It becomes:
What can the system do?
That distinction matters enormously.
A chatbot can recommend an action.
An AI agent may be able to execute it.
And somewhere between those two lies one of the most important legal questions of the coming decade.
AI Does Not Need to Become Sauron
There is an older metaphor for this problem.
A ring.
In Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, the danger of the One Ring is not merely that an evil creature possesses it.
The deeper danger is that extraordinary power changes the position of whoever controls it.
Even those who intend to use the Ring for good are warned against taking it.
Why?
Because the fundamental problem is not simply who holds power today.
It is what becomes possible once that power exists.
Artificial intelligence presents a surprisingly similar governance problem.
AI can concentrate extraordinary capabilities in governments, corporations and increasingly small groups of individuals.
The person controlling such a system does not need supernatural powers.
They may simply need a computer.
And access.
The Machine Behind the Machine
This is where the discussion about "AI taking over" can become misleading.
Perhaps the first question should not be whether machines will control humans.
Perhaps it should be:
Which humans will control the machines?
Who determines their objectives?
Who chooses the data?
Who decides what they may access?
Who determines when an AI system may act autonomously?
Who can inspect those decisions?
Who can challenge them?
And who has the authority to stop the system?
These are not science-fiction questions.
They are questions of law, governance and institutional power.
Europe has already begun constructing a legal response. The EU AI Act introduces obligations based on risk and imposes particular requirements on certain high-risk AI systems.
But regulation faces an uncomfortable structural problem.
Law regulates what exists.
Technology continuously creates what did not exist when the rules were written.
And increasingly, we are not merely building models that produce answers.
We are building systems capable of pursuing tasks.
From AI to Agents
That transition deserves considerably more attention.
Traditional generative AI largely waits.
You ask.
It responds.
Agentic AI changes the relationship.
An agent can potentially receive an objective, break it into steps, use external tools, obtain information, interact with other systems and continue working toward the objective with less human intervention.
None of that requires consciousness.
That is precisely why the fixation on whether AI can "wake up" may be the wrong debate.
A system does not have to be alive to exercise power.
An algorithm denying someone credit is not alive.
A surveillance system identifying someone in a crowd is not alive.
An automated trading system moving millions within seconds is not alive.
Yet each can produce very real consequences.
Power does not require consciousness.
That may be the sentence we should remember.
The Administrator Problem
Person of Interest gives its Machine an administrator: Harold Finch.
He tries to teach it boundaries.
He attempts to encode morality into architecture.
And he deliberately restricts the Machine because he understands something deeply important:
You do not design safeguards only for what a system can do today. You design them for what it may become capable of doing tomorrow.
That principle should sound familiar to lawyers.
We do it constantly.
Constitutions do not assume governments will always be benevolent.
Contract law does not assume parties will always behave honourably.
Corporate governance does not assume directors will never face conflicts of interest.
Data protection law does not assume organisations will always use personal information responsibly.
Law exists partly because good intentions are not a governance mechanism.
Why should artificial intelligence be different?
The Kill Switch Is Not Enough
There is something reassuring about the idea of a red button.
If AI behaves badly, switch it off.
Problem solved.
Except modern digital infrastructure does not live inside Harold Finch's laptop.
Cloud computing is distributed. Systems are replicated. Services cross borders. Infrastructure may involve numerous providers, jurisdictions and dependencies.
That does not mean AI has developed an instinct for self-preservation.
It means humans have deliberately built resilient infrastructure.
And that creates a fascinating paradox.
We spend enormous resources making digital systems difficult to interrupt.
Then we reassure ourselves that, if necessary, we can interrupt them.
So perhaps every discussion about powerful autonomous AI systems should include questions that sound almost embarrassingly simple:
Who has the off-switch?
Does the off-switch actually work?
And:
Can the person who needs it legally and technically reach it?
Who Watches the Watcher?
There is another danger.
AI may become so useful that humans voluntarily surrender oversight.
Not because a machine conquers us.
Because it is faster.
Cheaper.
More accurate.
More convenient.
First it recommends.
Then it decides.
Eventually, perhaps, humans merely approve.
And at some point the human-in-the-loop risks becoming something rather different:
the human-who-clicks-OK.
That is not meaningful human control.
It is administrative theatre.
If human oversight is to remain a genuine safeguard, the human must have enough information, competence, authority and time to disagree with the machine.
Otherwise "human oversight" becomes a comforting phrase attached to an automated decision.
The Real Alignment Problem
AI researchers often speak about alignment: ensuring that artificial intelligence acts consistently with human values and intentions.
But there may be another alignment problem.
With whose values?
Humanity does not have one administrator.
Governments disagree.
Cultures disagree.
Corporations have commercial interests.
Citizens have competing rights.
Security agencies prioritise security.
Businesses prioritise efficiency.
Individuals prioritise autonomy.
The hardest problem may therefore not be teaching AI what humans want.
It may be deciding which humans get to decide what AI should want on our behalf.
That is not merely a technical problem.
It is constitutional.
Who Controls the Machine?
Perhaps artificial intelligence will never become conscious.
Perhaps there will never be a dramatic moment when a computer announces that it has awakened.
Perhaps nobody will ever need to fight an all-knowing Machine.
But none of those things need to happen for AI to transform the distribution of power.
The more capable these systems become, the more important some very old legal principles become with them:
Accountability.
Transparency.
Due process.
Limits on authority.
The ability to challenge decisions.
The separation of powers.
And ultimately, the possibility of saying:
No.
The greatest danger may not be that artificial intelligence develops a desire to rule humanity.
It may be that humans acquire unprecedented technological power over other humans — and discover that the systems exercising that power have become too complex, too autonomous or too indispensable to meaningfully challenge.
Harold Finch understood the problem before most of us had ever spoken to an AI.
Building the Machine was only the beginning.
The real question was always: